A key source of power at both the individual and community levels stems from exercising political influence over decisions affecting the community. People who vote in presidential elections report feeling more empowered, enjoying greater life satisfaction, possessing a better sense of well-being, and having higher levels of self-rated health than nonvoters.
Evidence on the Relationship between Political Participation and Upward Mobility Outcomes
As of December 2021, researchers have documented the following connections between this predictor and upward mobility. Asterisk (*) indicates primary reference.
- People living in states with low voter turnout are more likely to report that they are in fair or poor health when asked to rate their own health (on a five-point scale from poor to excellent), compared with people in states with high voter turnout (odds ratio of 1.48) (Blakely, Kennedy, and Kawachi 2001*).
- At the local level, white people who are eligible to vote outvote Hispanic and Asian people by almost two to one and surpass voting rates of Black people by significant margins (Leighley 2001; Verba, Schlozman, and Brady 1995). Black and Hispanic people are less likely to be engaged in political activity than white people (Verba et al. 1993). Although this lack of political engagement is largely explained by the unequal distribution of resources that disadvantage Black and Hispanic people (e.g., education), additional structural barriers exist to limit voting among people of color, such as the financial costs related to voter registration as well as the time needed to learn about the candidates and issues, locate and travel to polling places, and wait in line at a time that works with their schedule.
- Zimmerman and Rappaport (1988) constructed 11 indices of empowerment, representing personality, cognitive, and motivational measures. Individuals reporting a greater amount of involvement in community activities—including 26 activities, such as voting, signing a petition, organizing people, attending meetings, contributing money to organizations, writing letters to government officials, and working political campaigns—and membership in voluntary organizations (e.g., honor societies, political groups, service organizations, and hobby clubs) scored higher on indices of empowerment. These are based on correlations, and the direction of causation is not explored.
- Klar and Kasser (2009), after conducting a series of studies on college student and national samples, found that people who self-identified as a political activist, expressed commitment to the activist role, and reported engaging or intending to engage in activist behaviors showed higher levels of well-being on several dimensions, including life satisfaction, positive affect, personal growth, purpose in life, vitality, and social integration.
- Terriquez and Lin (2019) find that 1.5- and second-generation young people in California participating in activist groups, especially groups involving young people from low-income families and grassroots campaigns focused on addressing inequalities, engage in other political activities disproportionately more than their nonparticipating peers. These other activities include voting (81 percent versus 60 percent) and protesting (35 percent versus 7 percent). Furthermore, young people involved in youth organizing groups—mostly from low-income families in grassroots campaigns that address educational inequalities, health issues, environmental justice, juvenile justice, immigrant rights, and other issues—attempt to increase their parents’ political involvement, such as encouraging political knowledge, efficacy, and activity, significantly more frequently than young people in the general population (88 percent of the time versus 12 percent of the time) (Terriquez and Kwon 2014).
Promising Local Policy Interventions
Research from both Urban and others in the field suggests the following policies could help communities improve this predictor. These suggestions are not exhaustive, and communities should work with residents and leaders to identify solutions that are best suited to their local contexts.
- Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections. (This may also improve the Descriptive Representation predictor.)
- Reducing barriers to voting, including by automatically registering voters, expanding the number of voting sites and their voting hours, and offering additional options, such as mail-in, early, and absentee voting.
- Adopting direct democracy practices, such as participatory budgeting, to empower community members and encourage them to participate in local governance.
- Restoring voting rights to formerly incarcerated people.
- Supporting labor unions and the right to organize. (This may also improve the Social Capital predictor.)
- Strengthening civics education courses in schools. (This may also improve the Descriptive Representation predictor.)
Mobility Dimensions Engaged
- Power and autonomy