Having local, elected officials with demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation) that broadly reflect their constituents’ characteristics is correlated with greater political influence and engagement among otherwise underrepresented groups. Such representation supports people’s sense of power and autonomy and feelings of belonging.
Evidence on the Relationship between Descriptive Representation and Upward Mobility Outcomes
As of December 2021, researchers have documented the following connections between this predictor and upward mobility. Asterisk (*) indicates primary reference.
- Gleason and Stout (2014)* studied whether respondents feel like their opinions matter to their representatives (measure of internal political efficacy) by comparing Black individuals living in congressional districts with non-Black representatives with Black individuals living in districts with Black representatives. The respondents were asked to rank their agreement with the following statement on a five-point scale (from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”): “People like me have no say in what government does.” Among those who strongly disagreed with the statement, 35.2 percent had a Black representative in their district, compared with 26.4 percent who did not. The results from this study indicate that Black individuals who are represented by Black officials feel more confident that they can influence public policy than their counterparts who are represented by non-Black officials.
- Fowler and Merolla (2012) define “descriptive representation” as whether an individual is represented at the congressional level by someone they share an ethnicity with. The authors looked at the incumbents serving in the US House of Representatives and asked respondents about their level of interest in following campaigns on a three-point scale (from “not much” to “very interested”). They found that the share of Black individuals “very interested” in following campaigns was 10 percentage points higher for those living in districts with a Black representative, compared with those in districts without a Black representative. The authors also asked respondents how much they cared who wins the House election on a four-point scale (from “not at all” to “a great deal”). They found that the share of Black individuals who care “a great deal” about who wins the House election was 11.6 percentage points higher for those living in districts with a Black representative, compared with those in districts without a Black representative. Furthermore, having a Black representative increased the probability of Black individuals voting in the House election by 9 percentage points.
The authors asked a battery of questions about whether the respondents engaged in the following activities in their community (on a scale of 0 to 3): community work, contact with an official, and meetings on school or community issues. The responses were then combined into a scale measuring level of community engagement. They found that Black individuals living in districts with a Black representative had a higher probability of being in the highest level of community engagement by 2.3 percentage points. Having a Black representative increased Black individuals’ general community engagement, although the effects were weaker than for political interest and voting behavior. Among Latino respondents, the effects of living in a district with a Latino representative on political attentiveness and engagement were much weaker than among Black individuals, with none of the variables statically significant. - Rocha and colleagues (2010) show that, holding all other factors constant, Black residents in states with a higher share of Black lawmakers in the state legislature are significantly more likely to vote than identical Black residents in states with less Black representation in the legislature. This finding holds over time (from 1996 to 2006) and election type (congressional and presidential); it also applies to Latino residents.
Promising Local Policy Interventions
Research from both Urban and others in the field suggests the following policies could help communities improve this predictor. These suggestions are not exhaustive, and communities should work with residents and leaders to identify solutions that are best suited to their local contexts.
- Switching from at-large to district elections, adopting proportional representation systems, and moving to choice voting or cumulative voting systems to make local governments more representative of their constituents.
- Creating public financing systems for local elections.
- Scheduling local elections to coincide with state or national elections, which can lead to a more representative electorate. (This may also improve the Political Participation predictor.)
- Strengthening and diversifying the local government workforce, including by investing in hiring, recruitment, training, and compensation. (This may also improve the Employment Opportunities and Jobs Paying Living Wages predictors.)
- Strengthening civics education courses in schools. (This may also improve the Political Participation predictor.)
Mobility Dimensions Engaged
- Power and autonomy
- Dignity and belonging