Exposure to trauma can alter children’s brain development and undermine their agency, capacity for interpersonal relationships, and self-esteem. It can also diminish the cognitive abilities children need to succeed in school and has been linked to low academic performance and long-term negative consequences later in life, all of which jeopardize children’s sense of power and autonomy.

Evidence on the Relationship between Safety from Trauma and Upward Mobility Outcomes

As of December 2021, researchers have documented the following connections between this predictor and upward mobility. Asterisk (*) indicates primary reference. 

• Research provides compelling evidence that exposure to trauma in early childhood can have significant negative consequences that persist long after the trauma has ended. Early exposure to trauma has been shown to undermine brain development, social-emotional development, ability to develop secure attachments, emotion regulation, sense of agency, and self-efficacy (Romano et al. 2015). As a result, children who have experienced trauma (especially multiple traumas) are at risk of developing emotional and behavioral problems, such as depression, anxiety, dissociation, post-traumatic stress disorder, low self-esteem, hopelessness, withdrawn behaviors, and impaired peer relationships (Staudt 2001*). In a study of a community-based sample, adolescents who had experienced physical trauma “had levels of aggression, anxiety/depression, dissociation, delinquent behaviors, PTSD, social problems, thought problems, and social withdrawal that were on average twice as high as their non-maltreated counterparts” (Lansford et al. 2002, 828).
• Three decades of empirical research into the effects of exposure to trauma indicates that, in addition to the long-term emotional and psychological effects of maltreatment, children and adolescents with exposure to trauma exhibit impaired cognitive development, language development, and overall academic achievement (Veltman and Browne 2001). Adolescents who had experienced physical trauma in the first five years of their lives were absent from school almost twice as many days and were suspended from school more than twice as many times as adolescents who had not experienced physical trauma (Lansford et al. 2002).
• One literature review found evidence that the link between exposure to trauma and educational outcomes/difficulties may be partially explained through the disruption of key developmental processes in children, such as attachment, emotion regulation, and sense of agency (Romano et al. 2015).

Promising Local Policy Interventions

Research from both Urban and others in the field suggests the following policies could help communities improve this predictor. These suggestions are not exhaustive, and communities should work with residents and leaders to identify solutions that are best suited to their local contexts.

• Creating programs to educate parents and families on children’s health, development, and care needs. (This may also improve the Neonatal Health predictor.)
• Fostering positive learning environments for students, including by developing programs that prevent bullying, moving away from punitive disciplinary practices, and applying other trauma-informed practices. (This may also improve the Effective Public Education predictor.)
• Preventing gun violence by limiting access to firearms, keeping guns out of schools, and raising awareness of gun safety best practices.
• Increasing access to mental health services, including substance use treatment and prevention. 
• Creating targeted supports for vulnerable groups, including children and young people—particularly those in foster care and those returning from juvenile detention—and survivors of domestic or intimate partner violence.
• Strengthening workplace safety regulations and creating paid sick leave and predictable scheduling laws to enhance worker well-being. (This may also improve the Jobs Paying a Living Wage predictor.)
• Improving traffic safety by implementing calming measures, building complete streets, and creating safer environments for pedestrians and bicyclists. (This may also improve the Transportation Access and Environmental Quality predictors.)

Mobility Dimensions Engaged

• Power and autonomy